Validation of Vincenty’s Formulas for the Geodesic Using a New Fourth-Order Extension of Kivioja’s Formula

Abstract

Vincenty’s (1975) formulas for the direct and inverse geodetic problems (i.e., in relation to the geodesic) have been verified by comparing them with a new formula developed by adapting a fourth-order Runge-Kutta scheme for the numerical solution of ordinary differential equations, advancing the work presented by Kivioja in 1971. A total of 3,801 lines of varying distances