Abstract: A three‐dimensional (3‐D) model based on the connectivity of astronomic and geodetic coordinate systems is developed from basic principles. It provides for simultaneous adjustment of most conventional types of terrestrial ...

Abstract: Conventionally, the determination of astronomic azimuth involves the synchronization of the observations with a radio time signal or the measurement of zenith distances which are subject to refraction errors. A mathematical ...

Abstract: In the fall of 1987, the National Geodetic Survey (NGS) conducted the first phase of a global positioning system (GPS) survey in Dane County, Wisconsin, in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin‐Madison, the CONSOIL ...